NRNP 6635 Week 1: Discussion – FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Main Post

The development of psychopathology is influenced by biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors. Genetics is a crucial biological factor that influences the development of psychopathology. Genetics is how traits are passed down from one generation to the next. Based on genetic research, psychiatric illnesses have been found to run in families (Boland et al., 2022).  From birth, biology produce learned behavior, such as infants born with a sucking reflex.

Psychological factors that influence the development of psychopathy include early childhood adversity, childhood trauma, and bullying (Paetzold et al., 2023). Childhood adversity is linked to mental health issues for children and adults later in life. The social factors that influence the development of psychopathology are family dynamics, social support, and socioeconomic status. The support from leaders at school is a factor in the influence of psychopathology. Psychological factors can also have a positive impact on the development of psychopathy.  Teacher guidance at school significantly affects positive growth and career development (Xiong et al., 2023).

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Cultural factors play a significant role in influencing the development of psychopathology. Cultural beliefs and practices regarding mental health, illness, and treatment can shape an individual’s understanding of their mental well-being. Cultural norms and values regarding social expectations can impact how psychopathology is perceived and experienced within different cultural contexts. Parenting styles affect children’s developmental outcomes differently based on diverse cultural norms (Sahithy et al., 2019).

Reference

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer

Paetzold, I., Gugel, J., Schick, A., Kirtley, O. J., Achterhof, R., Hagemann, N., Hermans, K. S. F. M., Hiekkaranta, A. P., Lecei, A., Myin-Germeys, I., & Reininghaus, U. (2023). The role of threat anticipation in the development of psychopathology in adolescence: findings from the SIGMA Study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(11), 2119–2127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-022-02048-wLinks to an external site.

Sahithya, B. R., Manohari, S. M., & Vijaya, R. (2019). Parenting styles and its impact on children – a cross-cultural review focusing on India. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 22(4), 357–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2019.1594178

Xiong, Q., Fang, X., Wu, Y., Chen, H., Hu, W., & Zhang, Y. (2023). Guidance and counseling relations to high school students’ positive development and psychopathology: A non-recursive modeling study. Current Psychology, 42(6), 4609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01722-7Links to an external site.

Initial Post

Biological, Psychological, Social, Cultural and Interpersonal Factors Influencing the Development Psychopathology

Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental illness and all the factors that are potentially responsible for them, paving the way to understanding their treatment. While there is no known cause of mental illness, various hypotheses have been suggested to explain the cause and their influence (Caspi et al., 2021). Biological factors play a vital role in the development of mental illnesses and revolve around neurotransmitters, disorders of neurodevelopment, and genetics. Disturbance of neurotransmitter levels has been thought to cause mental illness. For example, increased pain is responsible for schizophrenia, while a decrease in serotonin and noradrenaline is possible for depression (Troisi & Dieguez, 2022). Secondly, disorders in neurodevelopment are thought to play a vital role in presupposing the development of mental illnesses like autism and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (Caspi et al., 2021).

For example, in autism, there are notable differences in the amygdala, insula, orbitofrontal cortex, and temporoparietal cortex (Caspi et al., 2021). Lastly, genetics are equally thought to predispose to mental illness; a family history of some diseases increases the risk of having them. Troisi and Dieguez (2022) stated that autism has a hereditary component of 42-80%, making the majority of the cases possibly heritable. Some psychological factors equally influence the development of mental illness, including emotional attachments, beliefs, past experiences, life events, and coping responses. For example, experiencing a traumatic life event increases a person’s likelihood of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (Gureje et al., 2020).
Similarly, emotional attachments in children to their parents predispose them to the development of separation anxiety disorder, which can be traumatic to them. Further, psychological stress due to finances and grief can equally predispose an individual to develop depression, according to (Collizi et al., 2020).

On the other hand, sociocultural factors also affect mental illness, including cultural practices, level of education, drug use behaviors, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. In cultural settings, for example, the beliefs influence the beliefs on causes of mental illness and how to treat them. According to Gureje et al. (2020), some people believe that mental illnesses
are due to evil spirits and thus require divine power and not medical intervention. Similarly, culture also affects what people would otherwise what they would consider a mental illness in general (Collizzi et al., 2019). On social factors many factors also dictate mental illnesses. For example, mental illnesses like depression and psychosis are summoned in those using illicit drugs. Similarly, mental illnesses are common in people identifying with some sexual orientation, like the LGTBQ+ (Moagi et al., 2021). Further, people of low socioeconomic status equally have a higher prevalence of diseases like depression, unlike those of high socioeconomic class.

Lastly, interpersonal factors play a vital role in the development of mental illness. Unlike those isolated, people with a support system have handled emotional demands well. For that reason, people without support systems, like those isolated elders, have high incidences of mental illnesses like depression (Collizi et al., 2019).

References

‌Caspi, A., Houts, R., Fisher, H., Danese, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2023). The General Factor of Psychopathology (p): Choosing Among Competing Models and Interpreting p. Clinical Psychological Science, 216770262211478-216770262211478.https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221147872

Colizzi, M., Lasalvia, A., & Ruggeri, M. (2020). Prevention and early intervention in youth mental health: Is it time for a multidisciplinary and trans-diagnostic model for
care? International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 14(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-020-00356-9

Gureje, O., Lewis-Fernandez, R., Hall, B. J., & Reed, G. M. (2020). Cultural considerations in the classification of mental disorders: why and how in ICD-11. BMC Medicine, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-1493-4

‌Moagi, M. M., Der Wath, A. E. van, Jiyane, P. M., & Rikhotso, R. S. (2021). Mental health challenges of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people: An integrated literature review. Health SA Gesondheid, 26(1487). https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v26i0.1487

‌Troisi, A., & Dieguez, G. (2022). Etiology of Psychiatric Disorders: Lay Beliefs and the Role of Gender, Field of Study and Personality Traits. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 19(3), 150–155. https://doi.org/10.36131/cnfioritieditore20220303

                                                               Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

The development of psychopathology, therefore, is a complex process that involves biological, psychological, and social factors. From a biological perspective, genetic and neuroscientific factors can be identified as contributing to this behavior. Some factors have also been identified, including genetic predisposition, which may be inherited from family members. For instance, it has been realized that problems such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have genetic roots and specific genes have been identified to be involved in the development of these ailments. Consequently, neuroscientific research has also highlighted the brain and its structures and functions in relation to the development of psychopathology.

Psychological factors include an individual’s thinking patterns, behavior, emotions, and the upbringing they have received. Behavioral styles conditioned or acquired from observing other people can influence the expression of psychopathology (Grasser & Jovanovic, 2021). For instance, negative thought processes that are developed in childhood may lead to the development of anxiety disorders in later life due to the use of ineffective problem-solving strategies. Likewise, positive constructs, including cognitive distortions or maladaptive schemas, can also sustain symptoms of depression or anxiety. Hence, emotional experiences, including attachment early in life, as well as traumatic experiences, inform psychological functioning and susceptibility to mental disorders.

Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors are very influential in developing the psychopathology context. According to Fonagy et al. (2022), some of the social determinants include income, education, health care and social services, and social norms, which may influence the occurrence and progression of mental health disorders. Cultural beliefs and attitudes determine the perception of mental illness, which affects the seeking for assistance as well as recovery processes. Interpersonal relationships with family, friends, and other support systems also have a role in the onset of psychopathology.

The conceptual foundation for the practice of NPs should incorporate a biopsychosocial model of mental disorders. Hence, it is ideal for practitioners to incorporate biological, psychological, and social aspects in their assessment and treatment plans to gain a comprehensive understanding of the client (Furness et al., 2020). This approach assists in identifying the unique requirements as well as constraints of the individual so that the interventions will be more appropriate.

References

Fonagy, P., Campbell, C., Constantinou, M., Higgitt, A., Allison, E., & Luyten, P. (2022). Culture and psychopathology: An attempt at reconsidering the role of social learning. Development and Psychopathology, 34(4), 1205-1220. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/culture-and-psychopathology-an-attempt-at-reconsidering-the-role-of-social-learning/B74B6B06D06248BD896A5D6059F373C1Links to an external site.

Furness, T., Giandinoto, J. A., Wordie‐Thompson, E., Woolley, S., Dempster, V., & Foster, K. (2020). Improving physical health outcomes for people with severe mental illness: A proof‐of‐concept study of nurse practitioner candidate practice. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 29(2), 266-277. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/inm.12680Links to an external site.

Grasser, L. R., & Jovanovic, T. (2021). Safety learning during development: Implications for the development of psychopathology. Behavioural Brain Research, 408, 113297. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432821001856Links to an external site.

NRNP 6635 Week 1: Discussion – FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Initial Discussion

Week One

In the study of psychopathology there is a focus on how mental illness occurs in human. Children and adolescents can be prone to predisposition of mental illness through gene transmissions (Butcher & Kendall,2018). Other influences include environmental factors that come along with socioeconomic factors such as violence, drug use and stunted development processes (Butcher & Kendall,2018). The researcher Dr. Engel alludes to the school of thought of nature versus nurture which asserts, if a person is nurtured or lacking nurturing the human behavior is altered and can influence mental health disorders (Kaplan & Sadocks,2022). This theory should be given a closer look because evidence demonstrates animals have environmental stressors and toxins that can mutate gene expression (Kaplan & Sadocks,2022).

The emotional and developmental stage of adolescence is critical in developing cognitively (Jackson &Milberg, 2018). Cognitive alterations may show up as ADHD that affects processing information, reinforcing information and retrieval of information (Jackson &Milberg, 2018).

Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors play a role in how people may be affected by psychopathology. Sometimes clinicians are biased which could present inaccuracies in diagnosis for a patient who is not dominant in Western countries (Cheug&Mak,2018). Luckily the DSM IV and 5 have included an outline for cultural formulation (OCF) which addresses mental health concerns affecting different cultures (Cheug&Mak,2018).

These social, cultural, and interpersonal factors can play a part in the predisposition that contributes to mental disorders. Overall, many aspects of our adolescence play a role later on which results in how adults who have developed mental disorders cope with day-to-day experiences of this journey called life.

References

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.

Butcher, J. N., & Kendall, P. C. (2018). Introduction to childhood and adolescent psychopathology. In J. N. Butcher & P. C. Kendall (Eds.), https://go.openathens.net/redirector/waldenu.edu?url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-001Links to an external site.

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychopathology. In J. N. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/waldenu.edu?url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-006Links to an external site.

Jackson, C. E., & Milberg, W. P. (2018). Examination of neurological and neuropsychological features in psychopathology. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/waldenu.edu?url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-004Links to an external site.

WK 1: Initial Discussion Post

Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

According to research, numerous influences contribute to the development of psychopathology or the underlying factors that can affect an individual’s mental health negatively. This discussion will examine theoretical perspectives and categories of each facet that influence a reasonable behavior analysis. Studies show that both biological and psychological factors can create major depressive, bipolar, and schizophrenia disorders (Owen, 2023). Genetic predispositions mixed with traumatic environment interactions can cause a disorder to develop (Park & Kwan, 2018). Neuroscientific factors can include brain structure and function abnormalities, neurotransmitter imbalances, and neurodevelopmental factors involving prenatal or childhood stages like malnutrition or exposure to illness, which may contribute to adverse psychiatric conditions (Provencal et al., 2015). Psychological factors, including behavioral, cognitive, emotional, attachment, and development processes, can also contribute to maladaptive behavior (Koss & Gunnar, 2018). Behavioral processes can include learned and conditioned behaviors. Repetitive negative thinking patterns and abnormal information processing may trigger cognitive processes. Emotional processes can be affected by blatant difficulty in controlling emotions, while attachment and development are usually derived from caregivers’ neglect at critical development stages (Zeanah et al., 2016). Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors are also equally responsible triggers for an individual’s adverse mental health. Social isolation, stigmas surrounding mental health, discrimination issues, dysfunctional families, and poor peer relationships can all create an unstable mental health disposition if influenced by any combination of these factors during developmental periods that go unheeded without intervention or therapeutic response (Knapp & Wong., 2020).

In conclusion, the development of psychopathology is influenced by an entanglement of biological, psychological, and social factors. Genetic predispositions, brain abnormalities, and early developmental issues can lead to disorders like depression and schizophrenia. Psychological aspects such as behavioral conditioning, cognitive distortions, and emotional dysregulation also play significant roles. Social influences, including isolation, stigma, and family dysfunction, further exacerbate mental health challenges. A comprehensive understanding and interdisciplinary approach are essential to address these factors and promote mental well-being.

References

Knapp, M. and Wong, G. (2020). Economics and mental health: the current scenario. World Psychiatry, 19: 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20692Links to an external site.

Koss, K.J. and Gunnar, M.R. (2018). Annual Research Review: Early adversity, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, and child psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatr, 59: 327-346. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12784Links to an external site.

Owen, M. J. (2023). Genomic insights into schizophrenia. Royal Society Open Science, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230125Links to an external site.

Park, C., & Kwon, S. M. (2018). The role of emotion regulation in the relationship between genetic vulnerability and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, pp. 227, 350–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.11.012Links to an external site.

Provençal N, Booij L, Tremblay RE. The developmental origins of chronic physical aggression: biological pathways triggered by early life adversity. J Exp Biol. 2015 Jan 1;218(Pt 1):123-33. https://doi: 10.1242/jeb.111401

Zeanah, C. H., Chesher, T., & Boris, N. W. (2016). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(11), 990–1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.08.004Links to an external site.

Week 1 Discussion Main Post

There are several factors that contribute to the development of mental health disorders (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). Problems with neurotransmission are considered one factor in the development of mental health disorders, including the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and glutamate (National Institutes of Health (US), 2007). Pharmacological treatment of mental health disorders helps regulate these neurotransmitters (Bains & Abdijadid, 2023). Some mental health disorders have been associated with genetics, with some disorders being passed down from genes inherited from family (Butcher & Kendall, 2018; Nestler et al., 2016). Genetic links have been found in disorders such as ADHD, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, MDD, and autism (American Psychological Association, 2013; National Institutes of Health (US), 2007). Although, gene expression is influenced by one’s environment (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). Genetics predisposes one to certain disorders, but it depends on the environment as to which genes will be expressed (Butcher & Kendall, 2018).

Neuropsychological factors such as illness, injury, and hospitalization contribute to the development of mental health disorders in children and adolescents (Basu & Banerjee, 2020; Butcher & Kendall, 2018). Developmental factors, including age at onset of puberty, which impacts development of depression in children and adolescents, or age during a traumatic event, can influence behavior (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). Gender also plays a role in the development of certain mental health disorders. Adolescent girls are more likely to develop depression than adolescent boys (Butcher & Kendall, 2018).

Stress also impacts the development of mental health disorders in children and adolescents (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). It has been found that severe stress early in life can cause structural changes in the cerebral cortex (Bains & Abdijadid, 2023). Academic and social pressure at school, as well as interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers, can impact mental health functioning (Basu & Banerjee, 2020; Butcher & Kendall, 2018). Low socioeconomic status has been shown to negatively impact psychological development (Basu & Banerjee, 2020; Butcher & Kendall, 2018). Mental health is also impacted by immigration and refugee status, with children from war-stricken countries experiencing more PTSD (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). The location of where one lives can also impact mental health as, for example, major depressive disorder is more common in rural than urban areas (Bains & Abdijadid, 2023). Other environmental factors that can contribute to mental health disorders include abuse, neglect, parental education level, social media, natural disasters, and abuse (Basu & Banerjee, 2020; National Institutes of Health (US), 2007).

References

American Psychological Association. (2013). Five major psychiatric disorders share genetic links. Monitor on Psychology, 44(5), 10. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/05/disordersLinks to an external site.

Bains, N., & Abdijadid, S. (2023, April 10). Major depressive disorder. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/Links to an external site.

Basu, S., & Banerjee, B. (2020). Impact of environmental factors on mental health of children and adolescents: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 119, 105515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105515Links to an external site.

Butcher, J. N., & Kendall, P. C. (2018). Introduction to childhood and adolescent psychopathology. In J. N. Butcher & P. C. Kendall (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Child and adolescent psychopathology., Vol. 2. (pp. 3–14). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-001Links to an external site.

Butcher, J. N., & Kendall, P. C. (2018). Introduction to childhood and adolescent psychopathology. In J. N. Butcher & P. C. Kendall (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Child and adolescent psychopathology., Vol. 2. (pp. 3–14). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-001Links to an external site.

National Institutes of Health (US). (2007). Information about mental illness and the brain. NIH Curriculum Supplemental Series [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20369/#:~:text=Most%20scientists%20believe%20that%20mental,certain%20medications%20for%20the%20illness.Links to an external site.

Nestler, E. J., Peña, C. J., Kundakovic, M., Mitchell, A., & Akbarian, S. (2016). Epigenetic basis of mental illness. The Neuroscientist, 22(5), 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858415608147Links to an external site.

NRNP 6635 Week 1: Discussion – FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

To accurately address and manage mental health conditions, it is important to analyze the biological (genetic and neuroscientific); psychological (behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional, developmental); and social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology. From literature reviews, it is evident that the above-mentioned factors are intertwined and thus play a vital role in the mental illness or wellness of an individual. Explained below are some specifics of how these factors affect the development of psychopathology.

• The biological (genetic and neuroscientific): As it is in the medical sector whereby certain individuals are at risk for certain health conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, and cancer due to their genetic makeup, so it is in psychiatry (Daníelsdóttir, et al., 2024). Certain individuals are predisposed to mental health conditions such as alcoholism, bipolar, and schizophrenia due to genetic factors. Imbalances in the brain relating to dopamine and serotonin levels in the brain associated with neurochemical imbalances in the brain can be attributed to the biological makeup of an individual’s brain chemistry.
• Psychological (behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional, developmental): The psychological factors have vital influences on the psychopathology of an individual. For example, some individuals engage in reckless or callous behaviors due to deficits in cognitive processing. The level of emotional intelligence and developmental level can also be reflected in psychopathological symptoms assessment
• Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors: The social, cultural, and interpersonal factors are values and beliefs that shape an individual’s lifestyle and choices can either foster mental wellness or illness. Cheung and Mak (2018), makes it clear that the social world is influenced by emotional and behavioral disorders. The perception of past experiences such as trauma, abuse, and neglect, or other major life events such as the death of a loved one can impact mental health. The availability or lack of social support, social socioeconomic status can also impact an individual’s psychopathology.

References

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychopathology.

In J. N. Butcher & J. M. Hooley (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology: Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders., Vol. 1. (pp. 127–147). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-006

Daníelsdóttir, H. B., Aspelund, T., Shen, Q., Halldorsdottir, T., Jakobsdóttir, J., Song, H., Lu, D.,

Kuja-Halkola, R., Larsson, H., Fall, K., Magnusson, P. K. E., Fang, F., Bergstedt, J., & Valdimarsdóttir, U. A. (2024). Adverse Childhood Experiences and Adult Mental Health Outcomes. JAMA psychiatry, e240039. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.0039

Psychopathology is the examination of mental disorders and mental illnesses (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2024). There are numerous and infinite factors that can affect one’s mental health. One of the first factors that will be discussed will be biological factors. Some of the biological factors that can affect one’s mental health are hormones, genetic predisposition, brain structures, developmental acceleration, genetics, the endocrine system, neurotransmitters, and abnormalities of the brain (Ma et al., 2019). All factors can influence one’s mental health individually or in combination. These are the factors that an individual is provided with at birth.

The next factors that will be discussed that can influence one’s mental health will be the psychological factors. These factors include trauma, childhood neglect, abuse, the death of an immediate family member, emotional attachments and responses, stressors, and beliefs (Haywood et al., 2022).   These factors can affect individuals in different ways.  Two individuals can experience the same life experiences and be affected differently. Some individuals will thrive after the events and others will become delayed in their development and coping ability. This is always a discussion and unclear as to why one individual is affected differently from another.

Social factors that influence mental health are socioeconomic status, trust, income, education, food, community belonging, housing, social support, employment, and discrimination (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2024). Any one of these factors can cause one to feel isolated from the rest of the population.  In this isolation, one’s mental health can decline and then the individual can become less functional to not functioning in society.  These factors are what make support groups beneficial in mental health treatment.

Cultural factors that influence mental health are holistic care, immigration, mono-ethnicity, multi-ethnicity, cultural beliefs, rituals, stereotypes, support, adaptation, acculturation, values, access to services, stigmas, and prejudices (World Health Organization, 2024).    Someone’s cultural beliefs or their family’s beliefs can keep them from accessing care and treatment. If the cultural belief is that mental health does not exist then the client suffering from mental illness will have feelings of guilt, paranoia, and possibly distrust in the mental health system for treatment and will not obtain what they truly require for the resolution of mental illness.

Lastly, we will cover interpersonal factors that influence psychopathology. Interpersonal factors are demographics, actions, thoughts, personality, problem behaviors, bonding, biogenetics, functioning level, and cognition (National Library of Medicine National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2024).  These are just a few examples of factors that affect psychopathology and mental health.  A human being is a sum of all of its parts and pieces as well as what they have experienced.   In mental health, a care provider is continuously investigating to better a client’s mental health, health, as well as overall well-being.

References

Haywood, D., Baughman, F., Mullan, B., & Heslop, K. (2022). What Accounts for the Factors of Psychopathology? An Investigation of the Neurocognitive Correlates of Internalising, Externalising, and thr p-Factor. Brain Sciences, 12(4), 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040421Links to an external site.

Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2024). Johns Hopkins medicine. John Hopkins Medicine. www.hopkinsmedicine.org

Ma, S., Meng, Z., & Chen, R. (2019). The Hippo : Biology and Pathophysiology. ANNUAL REVIEW OF BIOCHEMISTRY, 88, 577–604. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-013118-111829Links to an external site.

National Alliance on Mental Illness. (2024). National Alliance on Mental Illness. NAMI. www.nami.org

National Library of Medicine National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2024). National Center for Biotechnology Information. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

World Health Organization. (2024). World health organization. www.who.int

Week 1 Discussion Post

A conception of psychopathology does not attempt to explain psychological phenomena deemed pathological. Instead, it identifies which psychological phenomena are considered pathological and thus require explanation. Conversely, a theory of psychopathology aims to explain the psychological phenomena and experiences identified by the conception as pathological. The way we understand psychopathology and related terms has significant implications for individuals, medical and mental health professionals, government agencies and programs, and society.

Biological factors

Behavior, including pathological behavior, originates from brain functioning. Many of our current treatments for pathological behavior are biological in nature; for example, we use drugs that alter neurotransmitter systems. Understanding psychopathology must ultimately encompass an understanding of its biological bases. Recent advances have been made in understanding and treating many psychological disorders using biological techniques. Early, often accidental, discoveries that certain drugs alleviated psychiatric symptoms led to the development of modern psychotherapeutic drugs and to the hypotheses of the 1950s and 1960s that many psychiatric disorders result from “imbalances” in neurotransmitter systems. However, the development of the brain is generally a complex interaction of genes, prenatal environment, and postnatal environment.

Psychological factors

Many psychologists argue that significant advancements include the development of explicit diagnostic criteria, the increasing use of structured interviews, and the proliferation of brief measures tailored for use by mental health professionals conducting empirically supported treatments (e.g., Antony & Barlow, 2022). However, some professionals disagree. Even the widely embraced use of explicit criteria for psychiatric diagnoses has been challenged (Beutler & Malik, 2002). For instance, Weiner (2000) criticized the current Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) as “a psychometrically shaky, inferential nosological scheme involving criteria and definitions that change from one revision to the next.”

Behavioral assessment methods and psychophysiological assessments can provide valuable information. For example, diary measures can be used to ask a client to record and rate the frequency and intensity of panic attacks shortly after they occur or to monitor eating or smoking habits. Psychophysiological techniques are also useful; for instance, a polysomnographic evaluation conducted in a sleep lab can provide valuable information about a client’s sleep quality (Savard & Morin, 2002). Similarly, measures of psychological arousal can offer important insights in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder, particularly concerning treatment processes and outcomes (Litz, Miller, Ruef, & McTeague, 2022).

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal factors

Central to the study of Cultural psychopathology is defining culture itself. The emphasis on values and beliefs highlights the psychological nature of culture. We argue that culture is manifested through interactions between people and is inherently social. Positioning practices (customs and rituals) alongside values and beliefs suggests that social practices are influenced by these values and beliefs. For instance, people are often thought to rely on their family during crises due to a strong sense of familism or family orientation. However, researchers rarely explore what aspects of the social world encourage or support this reliance on family. Culture is significant in various domains within psychopathology research. It plays a crucial role in the expression of disorders and distress, with cultural analysis revealing the variability in how mental illness is manifested. Social and cultural factors can also influence the etiology and prevalence of disorders by placing some individuals at greater risk than others for developing psychopathology.

Mullings and Schulz (2006) note that “it is often difficult to pinpoint how the interaction, articulation, and simultaneity of race, class, and gender affect women and men in their daily lives, and the ways in which these forms of inequality interact in specific situations to condition health.” They suggest that gender, race, and class should be viewed as social relationships rather than individual characteristics.

References.

Beutler, L. E., & M. L. Malik (Eds.) (2002). Rethinking the DSM: A Psychological Perspective. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Litz, B. T., Miller, M. W., Ruef, A. M., & McTeague, L. M. (2022). Exposure to trauma in adults. In M. M. Antony & D. H. Barlow (Eds.), Handbook of assessment and treatment planning for psychological disorders (pp. 215–258). New York: Guilford.

Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (2008). Psychopathology : Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding: Vol. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis [CAM].

Mullings, L., & Schulz, A. (2006). Intersectionality and health: An introduction. In A. Schulz & L. Mullings (Eds.), Gender, race, class, & health (pp. 3–17).

Savard, J., & Morin, C. M. (2002). Insomnia. In M. M. Antony & D. H. Barlow (Eds.), Handbook of assessment and treatment planning for psychological disorders (pp. 523–555). New York: Guilford.

Main Discussion Post

The development of psychopathology or psychiatric disorders is influenced by an interplay of various factors. The factors can be broadly classified as biological, genetic, neuroscientific, psychological, cognitive, behavioral, developmental, social, cultural, or interpersonal factors. Describing how these factors result in the development of mental disorders or conditions is crucial in the understanding of the progression and etiology of psychiatric disorders.

Biological Processes that Impact the Development of Psychopathology

Genetic abnormalities, vulnerabilities, or predispositions significantly contribute to the development of various psychiatric disorders, including alcoholism, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, depression, and attention deficit disorder (Smoller et al., 2019). Family studies, early twin studies, and population-based twin studies have continuously demonstrated substantial genetic influences on psychiatric disorders. For instance, schizophrenia is a complex mental disorder that is highly heritable, with genetic susceptibility contributing to approximately eighty percent of its risk (Merikangas et al., 2022). Research also shows that there is a combination of genes that mutate to affect the serotonergic, glutamate, and dopaminergic systems, resulting in the development of psychiatric conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (Strom et al., 2021). Various neuroscientific factors have also been linked to the development of psychopathology. Neurotransmitter alterations of dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin have been associated with the development of schizophrenia, anxiety, and depression (Sheffler et al., 2023). Neuroimaging studies have established the linkage between structural brain abnormalities and various psychiatric disorders. For example, the dysregulation of neuroendocrine systems, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system, is associated with increased secretion of the HPA hormone that substantially contributes to the development of depression (Hinds & Sanchez, 2022).

Psychological Factors that Impact the Development of Psychopathology

Behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and developmental processes are some of the critical psychological factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. According to Smoller et al. (2019), adverse childhood events, neglect, losing close family members, early developmental trauma, and insecure attachment to caregivers are some of the factors that alter normal development, contributing to the development of psychiatric disorders. Emotional dysregulation, characterized by the inability to regulate emotions and prolonged negative emotions such as anger or fear, can lead to the development of mood disorders such as depression (Gray et al., 2020). Reduced behavioral activation, such as participating in less pleasurable activities, and problematic coping behaviors, such as substance use, are behavioral factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology (Carreira-Míguez et al., 2022).

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors Impacting the Development of Psychopathology

Low socio-economic status, low income and education levels, discrimination, stressful life events, and exposure to traumatic experiences are some of the social and environmental factors that lead to the development of psychiatric disorders. Limited access to health care is a common social disparity, particularly among marginalized populations, which prevents individuals from seeking and obtaining the required therapy, making them more vulnerable to poor mental health outcomes (Schlax et al., 2019). At the interpersonal level, persistent interpersonal conflicts, loneliness, isolation, group dynamics, and lack of support systems in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood are some of the factors that significantly contribute to the development of psychopathology (Boland et al., 2022).

References

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer

Carreira-Míguez, M., Navarro-Jiménez, E., & Clemente-Suárez, V. J. (2022). Behavioral patterns of depression patients and control population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9506. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159506Links to an external site.

Gray, V., Douglas, K. M., & Porter, R. J. (2020). Emotion processing in depression and anxiety disorders in older adults: systematic review. BJPsych Open, 7(1), e7. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2020.143Links to an external site.

Hinds, J. A., & Sanchez, E. R. (2022). The role of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis in test-induced anxiety: assessments, physiological responses, and molecular details. Stresses, 2(1), 146-155. https://doi.org/10.3390/stresses2010011Links to an external site.

Merikangas, A. K., Shelly, M., Knighton, A., Kotler, N., Tanenbaum, N., & Almasy, L. (2022). What genes are differentially expressed in individuals with schizophrenia? A systematic review. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(3), 1373–1383. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01420-7Links to an external site.

Schlax, J., Jünger, C., Beutel, M. E., Münzel, T., Pfeiffer, N., Wild, P., Blettner, M., Kerahrodi, J. G., Wiltink, J., & Michal, M. (2019). Income and education predict elevated depressive symptoms in the general population: results from the Gutenberg health study. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 430. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6730-4Links to an external site.

Sheffler, Z. M., Reddy, V., & Pillarisetty, L. S. (2023). Physiology, neurotransmitters. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

Smoller, J. W., Andreassen, O. A., Edenberg, H. J., Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., & Kendler, K. S. (2019). Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-017-0010-4Links to an external site.

Strom, N. I., Soda, T., Mathews, C. A., & Davis, L. K. (2021). A dimensional perspective on the genetics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), 401. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01519-zLinks to an external site.